Policing Human Trafficking: Issues

Policing human Trafficking IssuesWritten for the Home OfficeCh completelyenges of policing sex traffickingSex Trafficking is a hidden and very complex crime. On this account, the lack of sensation, noesis and a legal definition about this crime makes, policing sex trafficking, a challenge. This briefing paper pass on approach the issues encountered when policing sex trafficking in the United Kingdom.Special points of interestEffectiveness of the National Referral MechanismSupport victims efficaciouslyUK Border authorities agency backlogLack of true agenciesLack of aw arness and association business organisation for child victimsInside this issueThe National Referral Mechanism Recovery TimeThe UK Border Agency backlogFirst RespondersIdentify victims mandateAccommodation for Child VictimsDefinition of Human TraffickingAccording to the Palermo Protocol, the definition of homosexual trafficking isthe recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the curse or use of eviscerate or new(prenominal) forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power, or a position of vulnerability, or the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having mastery over a nonher person, for the pur besot of exploitation. Exploitation shall allow, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slaveholding or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal or organs (Palermo Protocol, 2011)There are three main elements to define Human Trafficking. The movement which is the transportation or recruitment of persons, the control which reflects the coercion, use of force, little terror or payment method to control a person, and the purpose thins being the exploitation of a person by dint of forced labour, the removal of organs, slavery and sexual exploitation.(UKHTC, 2013)Human traffickin g is very frequently seen as an inter topic cross-border, scarcely it discharge withal exist human trafficking within your deliver country. (UKHTC, 2013)The National Referral Mechanism Recovery TimeThe National Referral Mechanism (NRM) purpose is to identify victims of trafficking and give them shield and assistance. To be engage in the NRM process, the potenceity victims of trafficking lead generally let to be determine by the front line practitioners or First Responders such as the police force or the UK Agency Border, etc. (UKHTC, 2013)When a potential victim of trafficking is referred to the NRM by an authorised agency, the Competent Authorities UK Human Trafficking Centre (UKHTC) or UK Border Agency (UKBA) has to make a reasonable grounds confining, which is decide whether a person is a victim of trafficking even if they understructurenot prove it in only up to five days. (UKHTC, 2013)If the decision is positive, the potential victim of trafficking will be gran ted a period of 45 days to recover from the traumatic events and reflect upon decisions such as whether co-operate with the police, go home, etc. (UKHTC, 2013)Several studies founder identified the serious and complex mental health inevitably of victims of human trafficking. Victims of sex trafficking have often dwelld, or confronted with events that included certain or threatened death or serious injury (Clawson, et al, 2008).According the American Psychiatric Association (APA), the victims response to these events involves fear and feelings of withdrawn. The APA considers these answers and photo to trauma, two of the main criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (PSTD). Table 1 shows the percentage of trafficked women with these symptoms. For an official diagnosis frivol away place, the symptoms moldiness to persist for over a month. posttraumatic stress disorder usually presents itself within the first three months after a traumatic event and in about half of victims, a complete recovery take place within three months (American Psychiatric Association, 2005).The UK Border Agency backlogThe aims of the UKBA are the law enforcement in order to protect the national interests, protecting the UKs border, solving crimes such as immigration, smuggling and border tax fraud, and executing fast and lovely decisions. (UKBA, 2013)If a potential victim of human trafficking has an unclear immigration status the victim will be referred to the Competent Authorities in the UKBA. These Competent Authorities in the UKBA work mainly with asylum issues. Since asylum and human trafficking cases are dealt in different ways and have different processes, these two roles could create a backlog of work contradicting their duty of executing fast and fair decisions. (Victims of Human Trafficking guidance for frontline staff, 2013)In raise to the Centre for brotherly judge, a Competent Authority of the UKBA give tongue to that Its difficult if youre working on asylum cas es to get the other work doneyoure constantly interrupted. (2013, p.78)Its difficult if youre working on asylum cases to get the other workdoneyoure constantly interrupted. (Centre for Social Justice, 2013)The statistics show that the UKBA in 2012 had 33,900 backlog asylum cases and 7,000 backlog immigration cases that it require to be concluded. Table 2 shows the asylum and immigration backlog casework. Many people have waited many years to know the result of their applications. The number of asylum seekers waiting for a decision for more(prenominal)(prenominal) than six months is 53% and the 3% is the number of cases that were concluded within a year. Table 3 shows the number of work outent applicants waiting more than 6 months for an initial decision. (Parliament, 2013)First RespondersAll the agencies and organisations that are more likely to encounter victims of trafficking are considered the First Responders. Therefore, they are authorized agencies to refer the victims of t rafficking to the NRM. The NRM was introduced in 2009 and since that, the number of authorized agencies or First Responders increased. (SOCA, 2013)Chris Good, a former Youth Offending Team Senior Practitioner of Ashfield in evidence for the Centre for Social Justice res publicad No-one in the community completes a NRM referral ahead of remand, hence the YOT have had to do it despite being officially unable to.(2013, p.72) The Young Offender Institutions (YOIs) have identified a number of young people within their institutions, who were not referred to the NRM and with characteristics of a victim of trafficking. The problem is that the YOIs are not authorized to refer these victims to the NRM. (The Centre for Social Justice, 2013)No-one in the community completes a NRM referral ahead of remand, hence the YOT have had to do it despite being officially unable to.(Chris Good, former YOT Senior)Identify victimsIn the UK, the appellative of a victim of trafficking is based on two approa ches one is based on having sufficient evidence for prosecuting the crime of traffic of human beings, and another is downstairs the NRM. The Home Office provides a set of guidelines on how to identify victims of trafficking, but there are no formal formulation given to the authorities indicating what issues they must look for. (GRETA, 2012)The Minister of Immigration is who deal with the human trafficking. This could influence the misperception of what human trafficking is. However, there is evidence conjure uping that even police officers have a lack of knowledge and awareness reformer(a)d to crimes of sex trafficking. In evidence for the Centre for Social Justice, the Deputy Chief constable of Sussex Police stated One girl take flight from a brothel and went to a police station to tell that she had been trafficked. She had no passport. Under these circumstances, we choose to arrest her for being and illegal immigrant. (2013, p.84)One girl take flight from a brothel and went to a police station to tell that she had been trafficked. She had no passport. Under these circumstances, we choose to arrest her for being and illegal immigrant.Giles York, Deputy Chief ConstableIn 1997, the Global Alliance Against Trafficking in Women (GAATW), after conducted a research into trafficking of women, affirmed that collect evidence on crimes of women trafficking was almost impossible cod to a lack of a consistent and precise definition of women trafficking and the criminal nature of prostitution. (Doezema, 2000)Generally speaking, the adversarial system existent in the UK states that a person is innocent until be guilty. (Davies, et al., 2010) Taking this into account, having the knowledge of how to identify a victim of human trafficking is essential to support, assist and combat crimes of human trafficking. ( fancy for Justice, 2013)LegislationThe Sexual Offences carry 2003 low the sections 57, 58 and 59 define the trafficking for sexual exploitation a crime when , an several(prenominal) traffick a person into the UK (Section 57), an individual traffick a person within the UK (Section 58) and an individual traffick a person out of the UK (Section 59). (SOCA, 2013)The Asylum and Immigration (Treatment of Claimants, etc.) Act 2004 define a crime for trafficking human beings within the UK if an individual arrange or facilitate the reach into the UK of a victim, and intend or know that individual else intends, to exploit the victim in the UK or elsewhere. (Crown Prosecution Service, 2013)The fact that the requirement needed to prosecute someone for trafficking within the UK is to prove that the individual was first trafficked into the UK is a barrier for successful prosecutions. Table 2 shows the number of Human Trafficking convictions in England and Wales between 2009 and 2011 on a principle offence basis. (Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group on Human Trafficking, 2012)Accommodation for child victimsAfter a child been identified as a victim of human trafficking they will be referred to an agency with statutory powers for child protection such as the police or the National Society for the Prevention of ruthlessness to Children (NSPCC) to provide secure safety to them. Under The Children Act 1989, section 17 the local authority has the duty to safeguard the welfare of children in their area. (Children Act 1989, 2008)The needs of a child will dictate the accommodation given by the local authorities, such as foster pity, childrens homes or unsupervised care (hotels or hostels). (CEOP, 2007)Despite the fact that there is little information about on trafficked children going lacking from care the APPG for gala and Missing Children and Adults and the APPG for Looked After Children and Care Leavers estimates that 60% of potential child victims on care by local authorities go missing and nearly two thirds are never found. (APPG for Runaway and Missing Children and Adults and the APPG for Looked After Children and Care Leav ers, 2012)The APPG affirmed that one of the reason for children go missing from the care of their local authorities is that they are groomed so stiffly by their traffickers that the children are so terrified of what might happen to them or their families if they break their bond or tell the authorities that they run back to their traffickers. (2012, p.13)However, under the section 47 of The Children Act 1989 the local authorities must start an investigation if a child is suffering, or is likely to suffer, significant harm (The Children Act 1989, section 47).Although, as it was mentioned previously in this briefing paper, the lack of knowledge by the authorities about human trafficking and, in this particular case, about trafficked children makes the realisation and investigation hard to be successful.Psychological treatment for childrenThe accommodation support is not the only failure of the government officers. As it was mentioned previously, the impact of exploitation in victims minds is immense and it could take years for a complete recovery. In evidence to the Centre for Social Justice, one foster carer spoke about the lack of forthcoming counsellor to support those children in her care. In a certain case, instead of wait so long for a counsellor, the foster carer decided to pay a private one with her own money. (Centre for Social Justice, 2013)The manager of the Children and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) said to the Centre for Social Justice that they have so much pres surely that the most difficult cases tend to stay behind. (Centre for Social Justice, 2013)ConclusionThis briefing paper explored several points where policing human trafficking in the UK is failing and how it could be meliorate.The need of a more specific definition of human trafficking is an important step to raise awareness and increase knowledge among the public and all the government officers in order to give an strong response to victims of trafficking.Victims of expl oitation are very vulnerable persons, and for that reason, First Responders need to have a practical training to understand how to deal with a victim of exploitation. Having specialized government officers at places where there is a large likelihood of finding victims of trafficking is essential. With proper training the officers will increase the chance of prosecute and convict offenders of human trafficking.The law in the UK for human trafficking should be defined in one way and not in several parts thereby creating confusion for those who deal with trafficked victims. Have the knowledge on how to support and take care of child and adults victims of trafficking is essential to prepare them for a new vitality and to gain ability to prosecute offenders with success. Give psychological support to both adult and children should be well implemented to protect the national interests.RecommendationsDefine the number of days depending on the intensity of trauma of the victims of traffick ingDivide the immigration, asylum and human trafficking cases between different departments within the UK Border Agency change magnitude the number of agencies with authority to refer victims of trafficking to the National Referral MechanismThe Minister of Immigration should no longer deal with human trafficking cases and pass that administration to Policing and Criminal Justice Minister in the Home Office.Provide more practical training for First RespondersCreate awareness and sensitize the public and First RespondersMake sure that First Responders are aware of what human trafficking is and how to respond to victims of human trafficking.Reinforce policing in after care of children victims of traffickingSupply faster counselling to childrenReferencesAmerican repository for Planning and Evaluation (2010) Evidence-Based Mental Health Treatment for Victims of Human Trafficking. Available at http//aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/07/humantrafficking/mentalhealth/index.pdf (Accessed 5 may 2013)APPG (2 012) Report from the joint Inquiry into children who go missing from care. Available at http//www.childrenssociety.org.uk/sites/default/files/tcs/u32/joint_appg_inquiry_-_reportpdf (Accessed 20 whitethorn 2013)Centre for Social Justice (2013) It Happens Here. Centre for Social Justice. Available at http//www.centreforsocial unlessice.org.uk/UserStorage/pdf/Pdf%20reports/CSJ_Slavery_Full_Report_WEB(5).pdf (Accessed 10 May 2013)CEOP (2007) A Scoping Project on Child Trafficking in the UK. London Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre Available at http//polis.osce.org/library/f/2973/1500/GOV-GBR-RPT-2973-EN-1500 (Accessed 20 May 2013)Clawson, H. J., Dutch, N. M., and Williamson, E. (2008). National symposium on the health needs of human trafficking Background document. Washington, DC.Crown Prosecution Service (2013) Human Trafficking and Smuggling. Available at http//www.cps.gov.uk/legal/h_to_k/human_trafficking_and_smuggling/a10 (Accessed 16 May 2013)Davies, M., Croall, H. an d Tyrer, J. (2010) Criminal Justice. (4th edn.) Harlow LongmanDoezema, J. (2000). Loose or Lost Women? The Re-emergence of the Myth of White Slavery in Contemporary Discourses of Trafficking in Women. Gender Issues 18(1) 23-50.GRETA (2012) Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe company on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the United Kingdom. Strasbourg Cedex Available at http//ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/download.actionjsessionid=gzYqRMcKJNWh9Tx9Thjv69Cs9mmWpwLvgX38LkPQFG51ssv11Th31062222535?nodePath=%2FPublications%2FGRETA_Report+United+Kingdom+2012_en.pdffileName=GRETA_Report+United+Kingdom+2012_en.pdf (Accessed 10 May 2013)Hope for Justice (2013) Human Trafficking Briefing. Available at http//hopeforjustice.org.uk/human-trafficking-briefinghuman-trafficking-briefing (Accessed 1 May 2013)Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group (2012) First annual report of the Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group onHuman Trafficking. Home Office Available at http s//www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/118116/human-trafficking-report.pdf (Accessed 20 May 2013)Legislation.gov.uk (2008) Children Act 1989. Available at http//www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1989/41/contents (Accessed 20 May 2013)Parliament (2013) The work of the UK Border Agency (July- kinsfolk 2012). Home Affairs. Available at http//www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmhaff/792/79205.htm023 (Accessed 10 May 2013)SOCA (2013) An Overview of Human Trafficking. Available at http//www.soca.gov.uk/about-soca/about-the-ukhtc/an-overview-of-human-trafficking (Accessed 1 May 2013)SOCA (2013) National Referral Mechanism. Available at http//www.soca.gov.uk/about-soca/about-the-ukhtc/national-referral-mechanism (Accessed 1 May 2013)SOCA (2013) Sexual Offecences Act 2003. Available at http//www.soca.gov.uk/about-soca/about-the-ukhtc/relevant-legislation/sexual-offences-act-2003 (Accessed 1 May 2013)The Palermo Protocol (2011) The Palermo Protocol. Available at http//www.palermoprotocol.com/general/the-palermo-protocol (Accessed 1 May 2013)UKBA (2013) Our Organisation. Available at http//www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/aboutus/organisation/(Accessed 5 May 2013)UKBA (2013) Victims of Trafficking guidance for frontline staff. Home Office. Available at http//www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/policyandlaw/modernised/cross-cut/protecting-vulnerable/04-victimstrafficking?view%253DBinary.28357810ECEA7B1C20CBF76CFF49144E.html (Accessed 5 May 2013)Is Memory a Constructive and Active Process?Is Memory a Constructive and Active Process?Joane CreeMemory is a constructive and expeditious process Evaluate this claim, drawing upon evidence from Chapter 8. of Book 1, Mapping psychologyMemories are part of people that grow and develop overtime, through everyday life and thep1 experience that they have. They are vital in that they tell people how to react to certain postal services and the people that they encounter along the way. Memories can supply people to effectively cope with social situations, and choose the best behaviour to suit the situation. They allow people to remember rules or safety information, to keep themselves and other safe. A take of the feelings about a situation that people have come from previous knowledge of how they felt or what happened to them at that time. They can make experiences more stressful, but they can also build up confidence or make them feel more nervous. Memories provide people with information to allow them to make decisions, they allow them to plan their lives and help them to understand their own personalities as well as others. Therefore they are apart of the people they are and the people that they will become. This probe will look at warehousing as being a dynamic and active process quite an than just a mechanism for storing information.A cognitive perspective on memory is not easy to investigate, as it cannot be observed directly. A variety of methods are used to provide evidence and explanations into understanding structures and theories of the mind. These include controlled laboratory experiments, quasi-experiments, field experiments, diary studies and cross-sectional studies, using insider as well as outsider viewpoints. Useful comparative information can be found by looking at case studies of memory deficits. Memory researchers have developed various theories to help to understand what regions of the brain are involved in making memories, and memory operating processes, how memories are constructed and how these are not always remembered exactly in the memory as they happened. They provide an model on how we are constituted by experiences and how this affects behaviour. You need a reference to Pheonix here (Pheonix 2007)Researchers have found three key memory processes, which work unitedly to process information. These include encoding processes, storage processes and lastly retrieval processes. A(s a)ll three of these process es work with each other, but how well the information is remembered depends on how well it was encoded. encode information involves putting information into the memory to store it. development a visual appearance, a sound of a expression or the nitty-gritty of the word, or a skill action, which is then transferred into a code. Once an experience is coded, storage processes retain the coded information in the memory, and it is then used to form internal representations, when it is matched with something seen.( Using the retrieval process the information is) Retrieval involves taking (en) from the memory store. It is then recognised and recalled by the memory. Research completed by William James (1890), looked at a primary memory permitting conscious activity in the mind and also a secondary memory which was responsible for storing the knowledge. Further research provided three sub-sections, sensational memory, short term and long-term memory Need another reference to Brace and R oth here.Memory is active, can be selective and constructivep2, but the memory does depend on the brain functioning, and memory research has shown that experiences and on-going cognitive functions can affect the brain biologicly. Experiences in the environment can also contribute to our biological being. Leading researcher Albert bartlett pear believed in constructive memory, and he rejected the idea that memory involves us replaying peoples experiences of the past. This again suggests that memories grow though out peoples lives. Bartlett completed a study involving a allegory The war of the ghosts, from this study Bartlett found when they were asked to recall this story, that the story they told was different to the original one. He believed the errors to the story were the result of going beyond what was explicitly stated in the story. Bartlett later suggested from his research that when we are given new materials, we use previous knowledge/ past experience to make sense of it, effort after meaning. His work demonstrated how the information stored in the memory and its accuracy could be unnatural by peoples own knowledge and experience of their life. His ideas have lead to further research taken place into the memory being a constructive or else than a reproductive process. That the memory is more active and has different components, not just a store for information.Future memories will not be exactly the same as past ones, the memory of an event can change over time when given new information, so it needs to be flexible. Memories of past events can be re constructed so may not be accurate in how it is remembered or recalled. This is a constructive rather than a reproductive system.Another argument by researchers is that experiences become memories and memories become structure, they are however inter- linked. Both of these making a person who they are, both biological science and experiences influence memory. As neither biology or experience provides us with the full story. Research into memory has shown that the experiences that people have and peoples ongoing cognitive functions can be seen to affect the brain biologically. Studies into memory processes and structures provide evidence of how we are constituted by experiences around us. However having knowledge of an experience provide us with stimulation in order to cue a memory.It is believed that memory can be enhanced, and people can actively help their memory retain information. The theory by Craik and Lockhart (1972 cited in Brace and Roth 2007) in the levels of processing theory suggest that the retention of material in dependent on how deeply it was processed when encoded. They suggested that just copying down words without any meaning, would mean that the words would only be encoded at that level. Words with a meaning is encoded at a deeper level so will therefore by more likely to be retained. This is because the brain is processing information more intensively, acti vely linking meaning to other stored material. Craik and Lockhart also looked at how the brain can memorise information by repeating information, with out further meaning behind it. These are all active processes. An example can be seen in an experiment by both Carik and Lockhart, based on this theory, the theory of processing investigation found that the participants remembered more when told to remember the set of items. It was discovered by researchers that memory recall can be improved by using cues or prompts to retrieve information, so would suggest the memory is an active process which can be improved, therefore illustrating flexibleness of the mind. It is the dynamic side of the memory that allows us to develop techniques to aid in computer storage information.However a memory can also make errors, and often the memory can fail. But imperfections tell us that memory is not just a reproduction of past experences, and that it is a constructive process. Pieces of information f rom different sources come together to create the memory. Brace N at al, Mapping Psychology P 170memory is an active, selective and constructive (rather then passive) process that is influenced by our previous knowledge, our emotional state and the social dynamics of the current situation. The memory does not always work correctly, though sometimes this can be just temporary. Research into memory deficits tells us that parts of a alter brain can be compensated for by other parts of the brain allowing for new memories and learning, again an active process. Another example of this is when memories are dishonored or failing, as the memory can compensate to allow for this. By studying atypical memories it allows researchers to understand how the memory works and what part of the brain works with what memory processes.Memoryp3 is different among different people with different factors influencing its efficiency, such as knowledge and experiences (. Memories) and are personal to people with new memories being created all the time, as in life people continue to learn to adapt to the world around them. It could be said that memory is laid down biologically but is the outcome of the experiences people have. Memories can be changed and are not a total record of an experience (, as memories) not only because they can often fade (Memories) but because they can (also) be changed or elaborated (when they are recalled) , suggesting that they are not fixed and have a degree of plasticity/flexibility as they can change and develop. We can also actively employ techniques to help us remember information. Therefore this would mean that the memory is active rather then it being simply a store for information.Word Count 1, 431ReferenceBrace, N and Roth I (2007) Memory structures, processes and skills. In Miell, D Pheonix,A and doubting Thomas K. Mapping Psychology. Milton Keynes. The Open UniversityGood end of essay referencing.p1Whilst it is good that you have made it clear ho w important memory this good be very much summarised. The terms that most need defining are constructe and active. You need to tell the reader how you mean to tackle the question i.e. what evidence you will use.p2 rough explanation, and perhaps an example of what is meant by constructive is needed here.p3This conclusion is reasonably well focused on assessing the claim, and summarises your points fairly well in relation to individual differences, interaction between biology and experience, plasticity and employing techniques. superoxide anion Dismutase Oxidative Stresssuperoxide anion Dismutase Oxidative StressSUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE OXIDATIVE STRESSSebastian, Jay Francine A. and Feliciano, Angel P. tercetINTRODUCTION highlyoxide Dismutase or SOD is an enzyme that has a surface-containing antioxidant. It reduces any harmful free radicals of Oxygen or O2 forming during a normal metabolic cell state that it will form type O or O2 and Hydrogen peroxide. Its name originated from dismutat ion which means simultaneous oxidation and decrease, with that being said Supeoxide Dismutase belongs to the enzyme class Oxido-reductases. To which this enzyme catalyzes an oxidation reaction and reduction reaction. Oxidation is a reaction that increases type O bonding and/or decreases hydrogen bonding, while reduction is a reaction that increases hydrogen bonding and/or decreases oxygen bonding. This enzyme can be found with all living cells, but for medicinal use the enzyme is extracted specifically from cows. It can be taken as a twinge as a pain treatment and inflammation caused by Arthritis. It can also be used as a shot for tolerance of radiation therapy, improves rejection rates of kidney transplants and minimizes heart damage from heart attacks.(1)SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASEThe Structure Superoxide DismutaseThe Cell wall not to be mistaken as the cell tissue layer is located outside the said cell membrane. It is described to be tough and rigid but flexible. It surrounds certain cells like plants, fungi (like mushroom clouds), prokaryotes (like bacteria) and eukaryotes (like mammals). This acts as a support, protection and as a filter for unwanted foreign substances. The cell wall benefits from superoxide dismutase. Superoxide dismutase aids to the reproduction of yeast. The cell functions against cell wall-perturbation. Cell wall-perturbation is caused by aerophilous stress and the superoxide dismutase aids as an antioxidant. This being said the yeast cell may be able to bud and reproduce due to the protection of superoxide dismutase. (2)Supeoxide dismutase can be found in the dermis and the epidermis. It can also be found in a Siberian chaga mushroom or CHAGA for short. It is abundant of SOD antioxidants. Superoxide dismutase is associated with Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn) and Iron (Fe). It many cases this is a metabolic enzyme due to it being an antioxidant. (3)Copper, Zinc Superoxide dismutase also known as superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) thi s enzyme is located within humans and is soluble. This structure displays that Cu,Zn Superoxide dismutase is embedded within this enzyme. This is located in the cytosol, nucleus, peroxisomes, and mitochondrial intermembrane distance of eukaryotic cells and in the periplasmic space of bacteria. The enzyme within humans is described to have a 32-kDa homodimer, with 1 sloven and 1 zinc binding site per 153-amino acidulent subunit. Each monomer based on a -barrel motif and has 2 large functional loops, to which they are called electorstatic and zinc loops. This encases the metal binding region. The crystal structure of metal bound dimeric human SOD1. Copper and zinc ions are shown as blue and orange field of honors. The zinc loop is seen in the orange coloured structure and the still loop in a blue colour. The intrasubunit disulfide bond is seen as red. A hydrogen bond network stabilizes the structure around the metal ions and links the metal-binding sites to portions of the protei n (Fig. 1.). alloy binding region in SOD1 is contained within each subunit and has 1 copper and 1 zinc binding site in close copious to share an imidazolate ligand. (4)Figure 1. Structure of Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase or SOD1 (4)Figure 2 displays Iron, Manganese superoxide dismutase also known as superoxide dismutase 2(SOD2) this is located within humans. In this enzyme Fe,Mn- superoxide dismutase can be found embedded in this particular enzyme. This enzyme producess a mitochondrial protein to which it will form a homotetramere. It also binds 1 manganese ion per subunit. This protein binds with the superoxide byproducts of oxidative phosphorylation. it will convert it to hydrogen peroxide and diatomic oxygen. This enzyme can also be located within a bacteria E. coli. Crystal structures have been solved at high resolution for Fe,Mn- Superoxide dismutase. E. coli MnSOD described to have a homodimer, while in humans and T. thermophilus Fe,Mn- Superoxide dismutase are homotetramers. T he subunits are placid of 2 domains, an all-a N-terminal domain and an a/b C-terminal domain (Fig. 2.). Known residues that only appear to be in Mn- Superoxide dismutase families, to which are expected to represent groups for catalytic function. Four of these are H26, H81, D167, and D171 in E. coli Mn-SOD sequence numbering. These are metal ligands. 2 more, H30 and Y34, form a gateway to an active site, and another, E170, is found in the outer sphere of a metal binding site.(5)Figure 2. E. coli Manganese superoxide dismutase displays the homodimer (5)Superoxide dismutase, Extracellular matrix or EC-SOD described to be tetrametric, a hydrophobic glycoprotein. It can be located in the extracellular fluid. This includes the plasma and the extracelluar matrix of tissues. This can be located within the human body in the heart, pancreas, and lungs. This enzyme shows some similarities with Cu,Zn- Superoxide dismutase. It also suppresses LDL oxidation. It also provides protection of the lu ngs from inflammation. It can remove H2O2 in the extracellular space. The crystallographic structure of tetrameric human SOD3 enzyme complexed with copper or Cu (orange) and zinc or Zn (grey) cations. The protein secreted inside the extracellular space, forms a glycosylated homotetramere that it is anchored in the extracellular matrix. The cell surfaces through the interaction with heparan sulfate proteoglycan and collagen. Part of the protein is pushed near the C-terminus before it secretes to generate a circulating tetramers that does not interact in th extracellular matrix. (Fig. 3.). (6)Figure 3. Superoxide dismutase, extracellular matrix (6)Mechanism of Catalysis, Kinetics of Reaction and Mode of regulatingThe overall reaction mechanism of superoxide dismutase is a ping- pong like reaction. It is because this reaction is reversible. As it displays in this formulaEzox + O2 + H+ Ezred(H+) + O2(1)Ezred(H+) + O2 + H+ Ezox + H2O2 (2)This can be done by Fe, Mn and Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutases (SODs). Where Ezox and Ezred is Cu2+Zn2+ and Cu+Zn2+, Fe3+ and Fe2+, Mn3+ and Mn2+, Ni3+ and Ni2+ to which it is derived from Cu,Zn, Fe and Mn-SODs. This is a simple redox reaction. The display of oxidation and or reduction from oxidative stress and oxidative free radicals. That being said it reduces oxygen and increases hydrogen and vice versa. The first reaction displace an oxidation from the addition of oxygen and reduction of hydrogen. The 1st reaction gives enough energy to produce a 2nd reaction. To which the same process is done, but with the give product. Notice that the reaction displays the predicted outcome of superoxide dismutase to with both produced oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. This shows a stopped-flow kinetic measurements. The peroxide complex forms, it effectively inactivates the enzyme in a balanced state. This peroxide complex is described to be an isomer of the peroxy intermediate. It being organize when a turnover occurred, and the conversion of a dead-end complex demonstrates the solvent isotope effect less. This suggests that the proton transfer to productive peroxy anion complex prevented the formation of the dead-end complex. A close balance between oxidative and reductive rates is displayed to be quite important for an efficient beat of the enzyme to which a turnover occurred. (Fig. 4.). (7)Figure 4. Manganese-Superoxide dismutase kinetic cycle (5)In the mechanism of superoxide dismutase catalyzed by copper dihistidine complex. An observation of the complex between superoxide and copper dihistidine wasnt observed due to the dismutation if superoxide catalyzed by copper complex requires such a complex. Notably, amino acid residues which are located near the active site have an effect on the enzymatic dismutation. Derivatization of Arg-141 which is positioned only 6 A away from the copper ion, diminishes the activity of the enzyme approximately by 10% of its original value. Also 7 to 8 lysine residues diminishes the activ ity of the enzyme and also inverts the colony of its activity in ionic strength. Amino acid residues near the active site play an important role in the Mechanism of superoxide dismutase. Lysine provides an piquant electrostatic field or superoxide anion. While the rest of the residues play a role in directing the superoxide anion to the active site. (8)Associated Diseases and ApplicationSuper Oxide Dismutase is an enzyme present in all living cells. This enzyme speeds up a certain chemical reaction in our body. Super Oxide dismutase is usually extracted from cows. In can be taken by the mouth for removing wrinkles and for rebuilding or repairing tissues. Super Oxide dismutase can be also injected in our body. It is usually used in treating gout, sports injuries, osteoarthritis, cancer and lung problems for a newborn baby. It also helps in toleration with radiation therapy. It also helps in treating people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinsons disease, Alzheimers disease a nd cataracts. Some researchers found that super oxide dismutase has a potential to be used as an anti-aging treatment. (9)Lou Gehrigs disease, a fatal degenerative condition in which motor neurons are destroyed, is now known to be caused by mutation in gene that codes for cytosolic Cu-Zn isozyme of SOD. Red blood cells are usually protected because they possess high concentrations of Cu-Zn SOD, catalase, and gluthathione peroxidase, and a very active pentose phosphate pathway. (10) composeSuperoxide Dismutase. 2014. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http//www.webmd.comCu,Zn-superoxide dismutase is required for cell wall structure and for tolerance for cell wall-perturbing agents in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 2010. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http//www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089158490200905X?np=yWhy does CHAGA aid in the relief of Cancer. 2005. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http//www.carner.ws/testitCopper-zinc superoxide dismutase and amyotrophic lateral sclero sis. 2005. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http//www.bio.brandeis.edu/nbio146/readings/Selverstone05.pdfManganese Superoxide Dismutase (MnSOD) by Jun Luo. 2001. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http//www.healthcare.uiowa.edu/corefacilities/ sedimentation rate/education/2001/3/LuoJ-paper3.pdfSuperoxide dismutase 3, extracellular (SOD3) variants and lung function. 2009. Retrieved 06 September 2014 from http//physiolgenomics.physiology.org/content/37/3/260Superoxide dismutases active sites that save, but a protein that kills by Miller, A. 2004. Retrieved 06 September 2014 from http//www.chem.uky.edu/research/miller/afm_papers/1.pdfOn the mechanism of action of superoxide dismutase a theoretical study. 1984. Retrieved 05 September 2014 from http//pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00331a048?journalCode=jacsatSuperoxide Dismutase Benefits One of the Most distinguished Things You Can Do To Live Longer. 2011. Retrieved 06 September 2014 from http//undergroundhealthreporter.com/superoxide-dis mutase-benefits-help-you-live-longer/ixzz3CbtGdYqFMckee, T. Mckee, J. R. (2003) Biochemistry the molecular basis of life 3rd edition. New York McGraw-Hill. Retrieved 14 August 2014Weapons Of muckle Destruction terrorist actWeapons Of voltaic pile Destruction TerrorismThe cause of concern for any terrorists attack since the post cold war era has been unprecedented. Such concern has increased of late as the disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union has left many thermonuclear, chemical and biological ordnances in the hands of nations, who are finding it hard to contain their two ends meet and to secure these utensils. So, these weapons are vulnerable in the hands of these nations, as any terrorist organisation would be looking out to materialise on such issues and acquire these Weapons of Mass Destruction.The chapters so far has brought out the various facets of terrorism using Weapon of Mass Destructions. Though the terrorists activities or incidents involving Weapon of Mass Destructions is miniscule as compared to incidents involving conventional weapons, any attack by terrorists using Weapon of Mass Destructions cannot be overlooked. The growing high end incident vehemence and the terrorists willingness to inflict mass casualty to general public is a pointer in the direction where terrorism is headed.The weapon of mass destruction is the buzz word for the terrorists, as with small effort, they inflict a larger damage. With the disintegration of the erstwhile Soviet Union, fissile material or Chemical and biologic agent stint a terrorists hand is not a remote possibility, especially for a state sponsored or well funded terrorist groups.In respect of India, the recent turmoil in Pakistan and the terrorist groups not recognising the government is a reminder of a Weapon of Mass Destructions attack in India becoming a reality.The terrorists can exploit the use of Weapons of Mass Destructions by either theft/ buying it from one of the states which is ei ther in need of money or are harbouring terrorism. It is important that the world realise nowadays that the threat from Weapon of Mass Destructions use by terrorist is imminent, and we should not be caught off guard and wanting in this regard. The starting point will include developing comprehensive plan involving the understanding the nuances of use of Weapon of Mass Destructions by terrorists and the groups.The starting point in this case would be to have something on lines of Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), as started by the USA. We need to identify the terrorists groups, which are most likely to use Weapon of Mass Destructions, and toss the outfit, freeze their funding and try and catch the leaders of these groups.India on their hand can start of on this mission, by firstly increasing the vigilance on the borders, increasing public awareness, and above reinforcing the existing security at its nuclear, chemical and biological plants, where a terrorist group may lay their hand o n.Amongst other things which has aspired terrorism, jingoistic terrorism, religious extremism and aggressive separatism are the most significant one. Nationalist terrorism is employed by a group of people with a ordinary identity to achieve independence from the ruling power.Religious extremism is driven by the belief that violent actions against any state is not only fulfilling the Gods will, but also freeing mankind from evil in the world. The shortsighted countries of North Africa and Arab states are of the opinion that the western world doesnt want these countries to become rich. The liberal and open deliverance of developed nations is often taken as being against these poor nations, thus leading to religious extremism. To ensure that such kind of terrorism does not springtime up, the gap between the rich and poor nation needs to be reduced.The modern terrorism frightens people with its ability to employ high technological weapon such as Biological, Chemical, or even Nuclea r devices. The use of biological agent cannot ruled out, no matter how much repugnant it may be. Biological agents have been known to have been made few state actors, and it could have easily been passed on to the non state actors, fighting for similar cause. If a biological threat was not taken seriously, it would be a bad bargain for any state. Reasonable protective measures would demand increased attention.Chemical weapons or agents are an effective military tool and can be easily be defined as an instrument of terror. Many countries have since end of the World War II has invested in the chemical agents however most of them claim to have discarded these weapons. The chemical weapon use by terrorists may be less effective as compared to other Weapons of Mass destruction, but it will have a huge impact on the morale and psychological effect, in addition to semipolitical impact. The basic engine room for development of chemical agents would be same as that required for civilian us e. This dual use technology for chemical agent pose a significant danger if they are diverted for weapons production, and any improper or illegal use cannot be found out easily.Bio terrorism is more likely than ever before and far more threatening than explosive or chemical. Preventing and countering bio terrorism is extremely difficult. Detection or interdiction of those intending to use bio weapon is next to impossible. Terrorists are likely to use the rapidity of casualty reached due to unexpected and non available diagnostic and therapeutic support needed. We are ill prepared to deal with such terrorist attacks. A chemical release is far more manageable than the biological challenge posed by Small pox or Anthrax. The spectre of Biological weapon is an ugly one, every bit as grim as that of a nuclear winter. The resource availability in the poor countries being at premium shall make them a vulnerable target that shall be unable to cope with the magnitude of such casualties. On t he immediate apparent horizon knowing well that what little can be done under such attacks, a mammoth task lies before us and a inhumane opportunity with terrorist groups to exploit it to their advantage.The chances of a terrorist group using a nuclear weapon is less when compared to chemical and biological weapon, but any use of nuclear weapon would be profound and disastrous for a state. All countries need to be vigilant in monitoring any proliferation of nuclear weapon technology to the terrorist groups.A terrorist group would not like to use a Weapon of Mass Destruction in the first instance. This is because in destroying the entire population and ruin societies, these terrorists organisations would lose everything they have fought for so far. However, the use of such weapons by self destructive terrorists or those who are religious fanatic cannot be overlooked.The change in the nature of the threat requires changes in the way we organize our resources to provide for the comm on defence. To cope with the new threat will require new doctrines and innovative technologies, improved intelligence and law enforcement, and better cooperation with like-minded governments. The three-pronged strategy I have described is both within our reach and within our budget. Of course we will have to refocus our priorities, and more funding will be required. But the threat of terrorist attack on American cities involving chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons has reached the point where a overvaliant and vigorous effort is required. This is a clear and present danger to the American people that requires a timely response.Historically, much less attention has been paid to the CB terrorist threat than to its nuclear counterpart, despite the cogency of the argument that the latter is less likely to occur than the former. In the wake of the Tokyo subway attack, this has begun to change. In fact, the past agree of years have witnessed a good deal of intergovernm ental consultation and enhanced domestic security measures planned or put into place throughout the occidental world. Whether these will be sufficient or timely enough to prevent the next large-scale CB terrorist incident or at least to mitigate its consequences to an bankable degree, however, remains to be seen.A robust WMD elimination capability is what all the countries require to meeting this threat and protecting from any catastrophic disaster. The ill countries or terrorists groups would not think twice before using WMD against any country if it is assured that the country is not prepared to counter the threat.